Hub dependence in constrained economies: the case of North Korea

While the geographical and economic factors concerning the development of hub ports are widely described by a variety of scholars and professionals, there is no recognized methodology measuring the hub dependence of a given port, region, or country. Based on a 20-year database of vessel movements, this paper proposes a methodology measuring hub dependence. North Korea offers a good case of a constrained economy facing dramatic internal and external pressures. Notably, the weight and geographical extent of its maritime connections are worth analysing because of its contrasted evolution from Soviet influence, geopolitical isolation, and growing trade due to economic reforms and increased foreign investments. The main results of this study show the spatial shift from long-distance calls to feeder calls: global foreland contraction, regionalization within Northeast Asia, and traffic concentration upon closest hubs of which South Korean ports. We conclude that hub dependence is a combination of local constraints and trade growth. The political implications of this phenomenon are explored, and a spatial model of hub dependence is proposed.     

The US—Canadian free trade agreement and North American maritime trade

The free trade agreement (FTA) implemented in 1988 by the United States and Canada will complete the integration of the economics of the world's two largest trading partners. While the vast bulk of US-Canadian trade is transported overland, the FTA will also affect the volume, commodity composition, and spatial distribution of maritime trade. The spatial structure of US-Canadian water-borne trade is examined followed by an investigation of the short-run (non-investment related) impacts of the FTA on the US port system. Commodity-specific analyses of tariffs and non-tariff barriers and elasticities of demand are employed to estimate the sectoral and spatial changes in water-borne trade volumes since 1988 that are attributable to the FTA.     

Competition for transhipment containers by major ports in Southeast Asia: slot capacity analysis

Container ports in Southeast Asia accounted for an estimated 30.0% of the world's transhipment traffic in 2004. The share of the region's transhipment trade was forecasted to increase to 32.5% in 2015. The potential offered by this large and expanding market encouraged major container terminal operators located in Port Klang, Singapore and Tanjung Pelepas to compete intensively for this business by attracting major container shipping lines that operated along key east-west sailing routes to hub at their terminals.

This paper analyses the annual slot capacity connected to the three selected ports that was deployed by all the container shipping lines in 1999-2004. The data are computed and categorized based on shipping trade routes. The study aims to shed light on port competition in Southeast Asia for transhipment containers by an in-depth and quantitative analysis.

The analysis finds that competition from Port Klang and Tanjung Pelepas had a negative impact on Singapore's transhipment performance. Although Singapore continued to enjoy a dominant position as the premier transhipment hub in the region in terms of market share by both transhipment throughput and annualized slot capacity, the evidence suggested that its hold on the market appeared to be slipping, albeit gradually. Overall, Tanjung Pelepas is expected to pose the strongest challenge to Singapore's transhipment hub ambitions. Managerial implications for the ports are drawn.     

船舶大型化对航运和港口的影响

目前订造中的7 500 TEU以上的船舶有100多艘。其中许多船舶将于2007年下水,投入亚洲-欧洲和跨太平洋贸易航线的营运。“超级集装箱船”(VLCS)正在坚定地从概念走向现实。超过8 000TEU的船舶的投入使用,对班轮公司、航运贸易和集装箱码头提出了新的挑战。班轮公司应该通过削减一组环线中的船舶数目、改变挂靠港和重新组织航运网络的规划途径来应对挑战。先进枢纽港应该通过开发新概念的港口装卸系统和新概念码头来应对挑战。超大型集装箱船舶挂靠的港口不能仅仅是简单的枢纽港,同时必须成为物流平台。     

Cruise port centrality and spatial patterns of cruise shipping in the Asian market

This paper investigates the centrality of cruise ports in the Asian cruise shipping market while proposing the hubs and authorities centrality (HACC) metric as a directional synthesis of the hubs centrality and authorities centrality to explore cyclical and directional features of centrality in the cruise shipping network. With the development of the cruise shipping industry, research has been actively conducted with a particular focus on identifying the characteristics of hub ports. This paper employs social network analysis to investigate the HACC which is originally developed for analyzing the cruise port centrality problem. Empirical study implies that Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong, Nagasaki, Penang, Phuket, Port Klang, Shanghai, and Singapore (in alphabetical order) reflects particulars of cruise hub ports. One of the exceptional results of this paper is Ho Chi Minh City, Penang, Phuket, and Port Klang have demonstrated high HACC (refers to hub ports) while limited degree and betweenness centrality. In contrast, Busan and Keelung are not classified as hub ports.     

Maritime security guidelines: a study of Swedish ports’ perceived barriers to compliance

ABSTRACT

Due to the constant risk of piracy and terrorist attacks which cause disturbances within international shipping of goods, barriers to the adoption of maritime security guidelines (MSGs) at European ports have become prevalent. In this paper, a conceptual framework was created to explore the perceived barriers that prevent compliance with MSGs. To verify the conceptual framework, empirical data were collected using a mixed-methods approach, which was comprised of interviews with national experts and a survey of 47% of Swedish ports involved in the shipping of goods. According to the presented framework, the perceived barriers of Swedish ports to compliance with MSGs were linked to collaborations within the Swedish Maritime Security stakeholder network, available resources and educational knowledge about security culture. In addition, the perceived barriers of smaller ports were linked to the adaptation to MSGs at different levels and the absence of specific tools of maritime security management. Due to an increased interest in international shipping of goods, this paper is currently one of few that addresses the barriers to compliance with MSGs. Moreover, the paper presents a general conceptual framework, novel managerial implications and recommendations for future research.     

Dynamics of change in the port system of the western Mediterranean

The ports of Mediterranean basin have experienced significant growth in container traffic over the last decade. In the western Mediterranean two distinct types of port have emerged: the established ports of the northern part of the basin which serve a gateway function and a set of new ports in the south which act as transhipment hubs. In this paper we explore the dynamics of change and reveal how growth is driven by shifts in individual trades. While the hub ports are integrated into Asian pendulum services, the gateway ports are experiencing growth because of new direct services to Asia and North America. We suggest that the distinctions between the transhipment hubs and the gateway ports are becoming blurred, especially because the gateway ports are also assuming greater transhipment roles. We also explore whether this new dynamism in the Mediterranean ports is reversing the long-standing hinterland domination of the ports of the northern range. We demonstrate that the gateway ports of the western Mediterranean continue to serve local and regional markets, with very limited penetration north of the Alps and Pyrenees. This is due in part to difficulties with rail services but also because of the continued efficiency of the northern range ports and their hinterland connections. We suggest that in the short run, at least, little change is likely.     

Dynamics of liner shipping service scheduling and their impact on container port competition

Container ports provide the primary interface where physical exchange between buyers and sellers of containerised shipping capacity can be consolidated and realised. Consequently, ports that are able to complement and add value to the objectives of shipping lines and shippers will become focal points for containerised cargo flows. To evaluate container port competition, the authors propose a practical and direct approach based on revealed preferences of shipping lines with respect to container shipping service dynamics. The container shipping networks are generated as carriers formulate their service schedules to capitalise on opportunities that are presented by evolving container trade patterns along trade routes and relative changes in the competitive profile of the ports of call. Empirical results showed that this approach offers a deeper understanding on the workings and evolution of competitive dynamics between ports, which may not be obvious from observations of port performance at the aggregated level. Benefits of the approach also include raising awareness that policy makers should be aware of the need to understand the nature, extensity and intensity of competitive relationships between ports as they craft and implement policies to correct for the actual or perceived market failures in the industry.     

Development of port service network in OBOR via capacity sharing: an idea from Zhejiang province in China

The ‘Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road’ (One Belt One Road, OBOR) strategy initiated by the Chinese government has a significant impact on the business and logistics modes which involves Asia, Europe, Africa, and their adjacent seas. Many countries and ports are developing new strategies that are suitable for this economic environment. Compared with many ports in the world, the ports in Zhejiang province of China have a novel property. In addition to Ningbo-Zhoushan port, there are several other sea ports and river ports in that province. In this paper, we propose a concept of port service network that consists of a huge hub and multiple ports. Ports of small and medium sizes can share their capacities of different types of port service with the hub when the service capacities are integrated into the network. We develop a mixed integer nonlinear programming model to determine the optimal decisions in such a network with constraints on the budget to conduct integration. An optimization algorithm incorporated with a genetic algorithm is developed to solve large size problems. We provide managerial insights on the policies of government, including expanding port capacity, reducing fixed integration cost, and providing better financial condition.     

集装箱枢纽港的成长模式探讨

港口(码头)达到满负荷营运通常需要5年以上的时间。一般说来,港口越大,其成长速度就越快。那些率先取得竞争优势的港口能够成功地成为地区性枢纽港,而那些不能率先取得足够货运量的港口往往会成为中小型的支线港口。只有某些具备适当前提条件的港口才能成为地区性集装箱枢纽港。此外,港口要成为地区枢纽港,还需具备地理位置、硬件和软件方面的条件。     

从国际集装箱枢纽港建设看上海港发展前景

container shipping lines require hab ports to possess the fehowing conttions Drart of mafor conalner hub ports and their tlder differences some majer hub ports developttental programine eanctbore to be denned for the port of shunghml in the centext if international container transport comsiderahons of water depth for the international container hub port of shanghai conefesions to be drawn     

Port development within the framework of Malaysia's transport policy: some considerations

There is disjunction between the national port policy and the national transport policy in Malaysia, as the latter, for much of its time, focused on national integration rather than trade facilitation. During Malaysia's concentration on national integration, it relied on Singapore as its main port. This allowed Singapore to develop as a centre of transport for Malaysian trade. To break Singapore's stranglehold on its cargo and to make Port Klang a regional hub port, Malaysia must reconcile its national transport and port policies, with the main aim of facilitating trade. In view of the strong presence of transnational corporations in its trade and the fact that world trade today is based on reciprocity, Malaysia may have to consider a more laissez faire approach with regard to port development.     

Dynamic programming of port position and scale in the hierarchized container ports network

A hierarchized container ports network, with several super hubs and many multilevel hub ports, will be established, mainly serving transshipment and carrying out most of its business in the hub-spoke mode. This paper sums up a programming model, in which the elementary statistic units, cost and expense of every phase of any shipment are the straight objects, and the minimum cost of the whole network is taken as the objective. This is established based on a dynamic system to make out the hierarchical structure of the container ports network, i.e. the trunk hub and feeder hubs can be planned in a economic zone, then the optimal scale vector can also be obtained for all container ports concerned with the network. The vector is a standard measurement to decide a port's position and their scale distribution in the whole network.     

Dynamic programming of port position and scale in the hierarchized container ports network

A hierarchized container ports network, with several super hubs and many multilevel hub ports, will be established, mainly serving transshipment and carrying out most of its business in the hub-spoke mode. This paper sums up a programming model, in which the elementary statistic units, cost and expense of every phase of any shipment are the straight objects, and the minimum cost of the whole network is taken as the objective. This is established based on a dynamic system to make out the hierarchical structure of the container ports network, i.e. the trunk hub and feeder hubs can be planned in a economic zone, then the optimal scale vector can also be obtained for all container ports concerned with the network. The vector is a standard measurement to decide a port's position and their scale distribution in the whole network.     

Port reform in Australia: regulation constraints on efficiency

Privatization and corporatization of ports in Australia has meant the transfer of government-owned monopolies to privately owned monopolies. This has required the introduction of a regulatory regime to protect the interests of users as in some cases the privatized terminal owner or operator is also a customer of that facility. A complex regulatory regime for ports at the commonwealth and state government levels has, as a result, been created. This has meant that pricing policies and reinvestment strategies are constrained by the regulator. Inefficiencies and disruptions are likely to occur. This paper examines the regulatory regimes in place—the role of the state government regulator, the Queensland Competition Authority, and that of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, the national regulator. It will examine the impacts and constraints these have imposed on coal terminal expansion and operations. Recommendations have been made suggesting the transfer of state government ports to a single national regulator. This paper examines whether the proposed regulatory overhaul will resolve the dilemma of the Goonyella coal supply chain. It will argue that while regulation rationalization and overhaul will expedite the complex regulatory process, the solution lies with an integrated approach to the entire supply chain rather than the port focus.     

Spatial heterogeneity of ports in the global maritime network detected by weighted ego network analysis

More extensive attention has been paid to the heterogeneity of maritime transport network in topological rather than in spatial aspects. However, the importance of links and the roles of neighbors of a node has been ignored if not all. To fill this gap, this article introduced the approach of weighted ego network analysis (WENA) to visualize the spatial heterogeneity of the maritime network at global and local levels. The topological connectivity graph of the global marine network was derived, and its structural properties were analyzed. It is found out that the values of the degree of ports follow power-law distribution, which indicates that the global marine network is scale-free, that is, there are few well-connected ports and a majority of less connected ports. The spatial disparities of the network can be described by a core–periphery pattern. In global, most of the hubs or ports with extremely high values of degree locate in the big-three maritime regions including Far East, North America, and West Europe. Along the peripheral belts of the three regions, there are lots of less connected small ports. A different hierarchical structure of six continents was captured by WENA. It is found that Europe, Asia, North America, and Africa showcase a pyramid-shaped hierarchical structure with a scale-free feature similar to the entire network, while South America and Oceania exhibit the fusiform hierarchy like small-world networks. It is proposed that such spatial inequality and heterogeneity were caused by the geographical environments such as the hub-and-spoke organization, the embedded trade pattern, and the proximity of location. These findings help us to understand the characteristics of the international trade pattern and shed light on the strategies of development for the industry stakeholders.     

A game-theoretic analysis of competition among container port hubs: the case of Busan and Shanghai 1

Countries throughout the world, and especially within Asia, are investing heavily in container port infrastructure in the hopes of capturing a larger share of global shipping activity for their economies. Many existing ports are emphasizing developing the capacity to serve as a hub port, building deepwater berths with large terminals to facilitate transfer of containers from feeder ships to mother ships for intercontinental transport. We develop a game-theoretic best response framework for understanding how competitor ports will respond to development at a focus port, and whether the focus port will be able to capture or defend market share by building additional capacity. We apply this model to investment and competition currently occurring between the ports of Busan and Shanghai.     

Port development within the framework of Malaysia's transport policy: some considerations

There is disjunction between the national port policy and the national transport policy in Malaysia, as the latter, for much of its time, focused on national integration rather than trade facilitation. During Malaysia's concentration on national integration, it relied on Singapore as its main port. This allowed Singapore to develop as a centre of transport for Malaysian trade. To break Singapore's stranglehold on its cargo and to make Port Klang a regional hub port, Malaysia must reconcile its national transport and port policies, with the main aim of facilitating trade. In view of the strong presence of transnational corporations in its trade and the fact that world trade today is based on reciprocity, Malaysia may have to consider a more laissez faire approach with regard to port development.     

Will a national port regulator solve congestion problems in Australian ports?

Australia's ports are an integral part of the nation's economy, which relies heavily on trade. In Australia, the governance of ports is the responsibility of the governments of Australia's six states and the Northern Territory, all of which have their own legislation covering the running of the ports and the establishment of port corporations. The respective legislation governing the running of Australia's ports is not uniform, and neither are the models for port management that they create. In May 2005, the then Deputy Prime Minister and Federal Transport Minister announced that the Commonwealth planned to take control of the planning and investment decision making of Australia's ports. The reasoning behind this is said to be Australia's poor trade performance and bottlenecks in ports which hold up trade and ultimately cost money. The Federal government has sought to do this under Section 51(i) of the Australian Constitution in order to update and integrate Australia's transport system. This announcement has caused disquiet among the states that had no previous notice of the announcement and for which ports are a major source of revenue. The transfer of power to the Commonwealth may lead to the Commonwealth being able to take further powers from the states, not only in relation to the ports but in relation to other areas such as industrial relations. Industry groups claim they have been pushing for a larger role for the Commonwealth in the running of the nation's ports, but question as to what extent the Commonwealth should be involved.     

The role of dry port in hub-and-spoke network under Belt and Road Initiative

Dry port plays increasingly an important role in the integration of inland regions with seaports, and cross-border inland ports especially in the context of Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) originally proposed by China. This paper studies a logistics network connecting the inland regions by dry ports based on a two-stage logistical gravity model. First, a basic logistical gravity model is developed to analyze the radiated inland regions from dry ports, where the logistical quality of dry ports is calculated by principal component analysis. Second, considering mutual impacts among dry ports, seaports and cross-border inland ports, the influence of logistical gravity on the network is examined by using a coefficient based on the Ordered Weighted Averaging Operator in multi-attribute decision theory. An improved logistical gravity model is further developed to investigate the logistical connections among various ports (e.g. dry ports, seaports and cross-border inland ports; hub and feeder ports). Then, a hub-and-spoke network can be established. Dry ports are potential to connect to the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road. So a Chinese case is used to verify the proposed method. The strategies of embedding inland regions in the BRI are discussed based on the experimental studies.