The Offshore Wind Power Debate: Views from Cape Cod

Wind power resources on the eastern U.S. continental shelf are estimated to be over 400 GW, several times the electricity used by U.S. eastern coastal states. The first U.S. developer proposes to build 130 large (40 story tall) wind turbines in Nantucket Sound, just outside Massachusetts state waters. These would provide 420 MW at market prices, enough electricity for most of Cape Cod. The project is opposed by a vigorous and well-financed coalition. Polling shows local public opinion on the project almost equally divided. This article draws on semistructured interviews with residents of Cape Cod to analyze values, beliefs, and logic of supporters and opponents. For example, one value found to lead to opposition is that the ocean is a special place that should be kept natural and free of human intrusion. One line of argument found to lead to support is: The war in Iraq is problematic, this war is “really” over petroleum, Cape Cod generates electricity from oil, therefore, the wind project would improve U.S. security. Based on analysis of the values and reasoning behind our interview data, we identify four issues that are relevant but not currently part of the debate.     

Model coastal zone statute

Abstract

This model statute sets out a mechanism for the management of the coastal zone by the coastal states. It provides a possible state response to the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. The authors recognize that most states presently have some form of management or legal control over their coastal zone, and the model statute has been written with the intention that all or parts of it could be adapted to the wide variety of state regulatory schemes with the aim of providing unitary management to the valuable resource of the coastal zone.     

Forecasting wind with neural networks

Wind forecasts over a varying period of time are needed for a variety of applications in the coastal and ocean region, like planning of construction and operation-related works as well as prediction of power output from wind turbines located in coastal areas. Such forecasting is currently done by adopting complex atmospheric models or by using statistical time-series analysis. Because occurrence of wind in nature is extremely uncertain no single technique can be entirely satisfactory. This leaves scope for alternative approaches. The present work employs the technique of neural networks in order to forecast daily, weekly as well as monthly wind speeds at two coastal locations in India. Both feed forward as well as recurrent networks are used. They are trained based on past data in an auto-regressive manner using back-propagation and cascade correlation algorithms. A generally satisfactory forecasting as reflected in its higher correlation and lower deviations with actual observations is noted. The neural network forecasting is also found to be more accurate than traditional statistical time-series analysis.     

Armoring Against Coastal Climate Adaptation in the US: A Massachusetts Perspective

Massachusetts, like many coastal states in the US, stands to be impacted from climate-induced sea level rise. As a result, climate-sensitive coastal policy instruments are critical for providing adequate adaptation options, including an option to allow coastal features to migrate inland. But the migration of coastal features is under threat due to extensive private armoring. This essay highlights specific regulatory instruments at the federal and state level dealing with hard armoring using Massachusetts as an example. It argues specific federal and state regulations legitimize and incentivize hard armoring over other coastal land use planning methods. The current level of armoring in Massachusetts is highlighted and implications under current federal and state policy frameworks are explained. Suggestions for coastal states planning for sea level rise are discussed, including the need for state planning to take the lead. Recommendations for changes at the federal level are also highlighted.     

Opportunities for a state‐federal partnership in an expanded territorial sea

Abstract

The United States currently has a 3‐mile territorial sea limit which is under the jurisdiction of coastal states. In the event the United States joins with other countries in adopting a 12‐mile territorial sea, Congress may consider extending state jurisdiction to 12 miles. It may be in the best interest of coastal states to oppose extension and instead support a strengthened federal‐state ocean management regime which disregards boundary lines and is based on the sharing of outer continental shelf leasing revenues along with a guaranteed role for coastal states in federal decision‐making.     

The Quiet Revolution in Visual Resource Management: A view from the coast

Abstract

This introductory piece traces the growth of knowledge and activity associated with visual resource management in general. A specific framework of questions regarding methods of coastal zone visual resource management is presented. The state‐of‐the‐art in methodological studies is listed for each question, and the methodological questions are related to the major articles with the special issue of the Coastal Zone Management Journal. Major legal federal statutes, state statutes, and court cases are reviewed in light of visual resource management in the coastal zone. The remaining articles within the special issue that deal with integration of VRM into decision‐making are then arrayed against a management framework. This framework includes regulatory situations for (1) public land management and planning, (2) public projects involving private lands, and (3) public regulation of private projects.     

Response of coastal zone management programs to sea level rise in the United States

Abstract

State coastal zone management programs are responding to the potential impacts of accelerated sea level rise through a wide range of activities and policies. This article provides a brief overview of the Coastal Zone Management Act and other federal laws that provide the basis for coastal state regulatory activities. It surveys the level of response to sea level rise by state coastal management programs in 24 marines coastal states, from formal recognition to implementation of policies addressing the issue. Individual state CZMP responses and policies that have been implemented or proposed are categorized. The adaptation of sea level rise to ongoing institutional objectives is discussed and policy constraints and trends are summarized.     

海上风力机安装技术研究(英文)

Wind power has made rapid progress and should gain significance as an energy resource, given growing interest in renewable energy and clean energy. Offshore wind energy resources have attracted significant attention, as, compared with land-based wind energy resources, offshore wind energy resources are more promising candidates for development. Sea winds are generally stronger and more reliable and with improvements in technology, the sea has become a hot spot for new designs and installation methods for wind turbines. In the present paper, based on experience building offshore wind farms, recommended foundation styles have been examined. Furthermore, wave effects have been investigated. The split installation and overall installation have been illustrated. Methods appropriate when installing a small number of turbines as well as those useful when installing large numbers of turbines were analyzed. This investigation of installation methods for wind turbines should provide practical technical guidance for their installation.     

Mussel and Seaweed Cultivation in Offshore Wind Farms: An Opinion Survey

German coastal regions and adjacent offshore waters are claimed for a variety of different, and often overlapping, uses. Conflicts of interest are expected to increase due to the planned construction of offshore wind farms. The development of an integrated approach combining different commercial activities, such as open ocean aquaculture and wind farming, could be a possible solution to overcome these conflicts. To illuminate existing perception and opinions on this multiple-use idea, this study examines the attitudes of representatives of eight different actor groups toward potential offshore wind farm–mariculture integration in the German North Sea. Results from our questionnaire survey show that the respondents’ attitudes toward the suggested multiple-use setting seem to be largely influenced by their general opinion toward offshore wind farms. The Fisheries actor group differs from the other questioned groups in that negative attitudes are overall predominant. This case study points to the need for a credible mechanism that more successfully integrates key actor groups, such as fisheries, into future planning and research issues.     

一种新船型——海上风电设备安装船的开发

风电是一种理想的绿色能源，目前对风电的开发利用已从陆地延伸到海上，由此，海上风电场应运而生并迅速发展。风电设备安装船作为建设海上风电场的关键装备，其开发利用也引起关注与重视。阐述了国内外海上风力发电现状以及风电设备安装船的需求，并提出一型风电设备安装船供参考。     

Forty Years of the CZMA: Impacts and Innovations

This article addresses federal, state, and local regulatory regimes for controlling commercial advertising in coastal waters. It focuses on a new method of outdoor advertising that utilizes a billboard towed by a tug in coastal waters. Specifically, it explores the extent to which legal action to regulate advertising from floating billboards in U.S. waters could withstand constitutional scrutiny. The issue is examined within the contexts of commercial speech and navigational servitude. Additionally, the article discusses the preservation of viewscapes along the coast and the applicability of the public trust doctrine. Jurisdictional issues are examined along with the role of states' harbor management plans and local ordinances in regulating commerce and providing anchorage limitations. The article argues that regulation of floating billboards must not necessarily be based on aesthetics, but the public trust doctrine. The article concludes that the language of the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) and interpretations of its scope, as well as Supreme Court decisions in favor of aesthetic zoning, support the inclusion of such regulations in states' coastal zone management plans.     

States’ obligations relating to marine monitoring and observation

Ocean data determining the state of the ocean are required for various purposes. The data are needed to understand the ocean and its interrelation, for instance, with the climate as well as to provide information and benefits for numerous sectors, such as for the coastal protection or pollution control. In order to meet the multiple needs for ocean information, a global and sustained system for ocean observation activities is necessary. Steps towards such a global system have been taken within the last decades, especially by setting up the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). However, the existing international structures and systems have been lacking governmental support and are held to be insufficient. In this context, the questions are raised whether states are already required by international law to observe and monitor the ocean and to cooperate in doing so and whether states are even obliged to contribute to international ocean observing programmes. Although to some extent, states’ obligations can be found in international conventions, such as in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), they cannot meet all the various needs for ocean data. Specific and substantive obligations in international law meeting the multiple needs for ocean data are, however, required. If such obligations were included in the UNCLOS, issues relating to Marine Scientific Research would have to be kept in mind. Another option of creating specific commitments could be seen in a new agreement relating to the GOOS.     

Book reviews

Innovation, organizational capabilities, and environmental values combine to determine institutional change for a major marine port. This conceptual framework is applied to the case of dredged material management for the Port of New York and New Jersey. During the century under review, the institutional setting has changed significantly with: (1) environmental considerations moving from nearly irrelevant to central: (2) the number of interests and organizations increasing; and (3) the decision processes becoming far more complex. Ultimately, the new institutional setting influences organizations and individual decisions. As a result of the changes, the practice of dredged material disposal in ocean waters has been limited based on the level of bioaccumulation of selected contaminants. In response to institutional changes, ports requiring deepened channels must rapidly innovate to meet new environmental obligations for material disposal in order to enhance organizational capabilities necessary to maintain competitive advantages in maritime commerce. Successful marine ports will anticipate and meet new societal expectations related to the environment as a condition for continued legitimacy. Collectively these changes imply that ports have moved beyond a carefully circumscribed mission of transportation and economic development to that of a prominent user of coastal space with broad obligations to the public.     

Institutional change in the Port of New York

Innovation, organizational capabilities, and environmental values combine to determine institutional change for a major marine port. This conceptual framework is applied to the case of dredged material management for the Port of New York and New Jersey. During the century under review, the institutional setting has changed significantly with: (1) environmental considerations moving from nearly irrelevant to central: (2) the number of interests and organizations increasing; and (3) the decision processes becoming far more complex. Ultimately, the new institutional setting influences organizations and individual decisions. As a result of the changes, the practice of dredged material disposal in ocean waters has been limited based on the level of bioaccumulation of selected contaminants. In response to institutional changes, ports requiring deepened channels must rapidly innovate to meet new environmental obligations for material disposal in order to enhance organizational capabilities necessary to maintain competitive advantages in maritime commerce. Successful marine ports will anticipate and meet new societal expectations related to the environment as a condition for continued legitimacy. Collectively these changes imply that ports have moved beyond a carefully circumscribed mission of transportation and economic development to that of a prominent user of coastal space with broad obligations to the public.     

基于非均匀连续时间马尔可夫原理的海上浮式风机齿轮箱最优维修策略研究（英文）

Gearbox in offshore wind turbines is a component with the highest failure rates during operation. Analysis of gearbox repair policy that includes economic considerations is important for the effective operation of offshore wind farms. From their initial perfect working states, gearboxes degrade with time, which leads to decreased working efficiency. Thus, offshore wind turbine gearboxes can be considered to be multi-state systems with the various levels of productivity for different working states. To efficiently compute the time-dependent distribution of this multi-state system and analyze its reliability, application of the nonhomogeneous continuous-time Markov process(NHCTMP) is appropriate for this type of object. To determine the relationship between operation time and maintenance cost, many factors must be taken into account, including maintenance processes and vessel requirements. Finally, an optimal repair policy can be formulated based on this relationship.     

Improvement in capacity factor and fatigue assessment of VLMOS for wind power generation based on navigation simulation

The very large mobile offshore structure (VLMOS) for wind power generation is one example of challenging future technologies to create a new backbone of energy resource of our country. The National Institute for Environmental Studies Japan has been studying this concept and found that increasing the capacity factor and reducing the weight of the structure are keys to make this concept successful. We investigated the navigation logic to improve the capacity factor and performed a fatigue assessment to ensure the structural safety of light weight design. Taking the knowledge on the seasonal weather condition in the Pacific Ocean into consideration, improved strategy of the VLMOS navigation for maximizing the generating power is proposed. Navigation simulations show that it is easy to achieve more than 40% capacity factor and to escape from high seas. Using wind and wave data obtained from the navigation simulations, an assessment of the fatigue damage has been performed. It is stated that the structure has enough fatigue strength for a 100 years of operation even if wind turbines get more than 40% of the capacity factor.     

人工岛围垦技术的探讨

为解决我国沿海地区土地资源短缺制约经济发展的问题,以围垦方式建设人工岛可基本保持海岸的天然原始状态,有利于保护岸线和滨海湿地资源,使项目用海更具科学性和持续性,体现了目前国际上较先进的用海理念。提出人工岛选址和规划建设的原则,初步探讨人工岛总平面布置、堤坝护岸结构选型、陆域填筑施工、陆岛交通方式和对海洋生态环境影响等关键技术问题。     

Estimating the Economic Benefits of Regional Ocean Observing Systems

This article introduces a theme issue of the Coastal Management Journal comprising a set of articles on the potential economic benefits from new investments in coastal ocean observing systems. We describe a methodology to estimate these benefits, and apply this methodology to generate preliminary estimates of such benefits. The approach focuses on coastal ocean observing information within ten geographic regions encompassing all coastal waters of the United States, and within a wide range of industrial and recreational activities including recreational fishing and boating, beach recreation, maritime transportation, search and rescue operations, spill response, marine hazards prediction, offshore energy, power generation, and commercial fishing. Our findings suggest that annual benefits to users are likely to run in the multiple $100s of millions of dollars. The project results should be considered first-order estimates that are subject to considerable refinement as the parameters of regional observing systems are better defined, and as our understanding of user sectors improves.     

Evolving the subspace of the three-dimensional multiscale ocean variability: Massachusetts Bay

A data and dynamics driven approach to estimate, decompose, organize and analyze the evolving three-dimensional variability of ocean fields is outlined. Variability refers here to the statistics of the differences between ocean states and a reference state. In general, these statistics evolve in time and space. For a first endeavor, the variability subspace defined by the dominant eigendecomposition of a normalized form of the variability covariance is evolved. A multiscale methodology for its initialization and forecast is outlined. It combines data and primitive equation dynamics within a Monte-Carlo approach.The methodology is applied to part of a multidisciplinary experiment that occurred in Massachusetts Bay in late summer and early fall of 1998. For a 4-day time period, the three-dimensional and multivariate properties of the variability standard deviations and dominant eigenvectors are studied. Two variability patterns are discussed in detail. One relates to a displacement of the Gulf of Maine coastal current offshore from Cape Ann, with the creation of adjacent mesoscale recirculation cells. The other relates to a Bay-wide coastal upwelling mode from Barnstable Harbor to Gloucester in response to strong southerly winds. Snapshots and tendencies of physical fields and trajectories of simulated Lagrangian drifters are employed to diagnose and illustrate the use of the dominant variability covariance. The variability subspace is shown to guide the dynamical analysis of the physical fields. For the stratified conditions, it is found that strong wind events can alter the structures of the buoyancy flow and that circulation features are more variable than previously described, on multiple scales. In several locations, the factors estimated to be important include some or all of the atmospheric and surface pressure forcings, and associated Ekman transports and downwelling/upwelling processes, the Coriolis force, the pressure force, inertia and mixing.     

Aspects of the European Maritime Industry

This article discusses the regulatory and operational issues which have recently confronted a number of U.S. ports as a result of their dredging programmers. It describes the environmental concerns which have led community groups to raise legal objections to the traditional practice of ocean dumping of dredged material, the federal/state regulatory framework within which these objections have been considered and recent legislative changes to that framework. The paper describes in some detail the specific case of the Port of New York and New Jersey, which has experienced severe delays in its dredging programme since 1992 (and a resulting loss of business) as well mounting costs for dredged material disposal. The paper concludes that, complicated as the technical problems involving dredged material disposal may be, it is the political and economic issues involved which are likely to be decisive in the eventual outcomes for affected ports.