To competitively tender or to negotiate - Weighing up the choices in a mature market

A key attribute of competitive tendering for the periodic selection of operators of subsidised public transport services is to secure the provision of specified services at efficient cost levels. This has proved particularly effective where services were previously provided by an inefficient monopoly operator. The arguments for the adoption of competitive tendering in preference to negotiation with the incumbent operator may be less clear-cut in other cases.Consideration is given to both theoretical and practical insights into the relative merits of competitive tendering and negotiation approaches in such situations. The limited literature on the topic is reviewed and insights and lessons identified. Influencing issues include prior conditions, the nature of the supplier market, features of contracts, negotiating and competitive tendering strategies and practice, accountability and transparency, and long-term market implications. The evidence suggests that ‘one size does not fit all’, and the choice will depend on specific circumstances.The relative merits of the two approaches for renewal of bus contracts are considered with regard to Adelaide, for contracts which have previously been awarded through competitive tendering. The paper draws out the main factors that could influence the authority’s choice between the options, and discusses the relevance of the findings to other situations.     

Contracting regimes for bus services: What have we learnt after 20 years?

This paper reviews a number of themes that have played a crucial role in the debate on alternative contracting regimes for the provision of urban bus services. We have selected four crucial issues to reflect on: (i) contractual regimes (in particular competitive tendering as compared to negotiated performance-based contracts, as means to award the rights to provide service); (ii) contract completeness (focussing on ex ante and ex post elements); (iii) building trust through partnership; and (iv) tactical or system level planning for bus services. Experience in these areas suggests that competitive tendering has frequently not lived up to expectations and that negotiation is likely in many circumstances to deliver better value for money.     

The conflict between competition policy and the wider role of the local bus industry in Britain

Since the Transport Act of 1985, the local bus industry in Britain (outside London and Northern Ireland) has been subject to deregulation, removing previous restrictions on routes, service levels and fares. This also marked a reversal of the previous emphasis on co-ordination of services provided by different operators, and introduced competition law as applying to other industries to the local bus sector. This has been in conflict with other policy objectives aimed at stimulating greater use of public transport, such as harmonisation of ticketing systems. The underlying issues are examined, and recent changes in policy. The Local Transport Act of 2008 offers an opportunity to resolve some of these problems, and its application in Oxford is discussed as the first substantial example to date. However, a strong conflict remains between the role of competition agencies and other aspects of policy.     

Market role and regulation of extensive urban minibus services as large bus service capacity is restored - Case studies from Ghana, Georgia and Kazakhstan

In some cities, the degeneration and collapse of formal bus services has allowed large-scale minibus operations to become established but, over time, city authorities and municipal bus operators regain at least part of their operating capacity and seek to regain their market share. This paper examines and compares three case studies: Accra, Tbilisi, and cities of Kazakhstan. It examines the development of the urban minibus services market as conventional bus services went into decline, the gradual re-emergence of large buses, how the authorities have viewed the minibuses as circumstances change, and market and regulatory strategies followed by city authorities.     

Ten years after bus deregulation in Japan: An analysis of institutional changes and cost efficiency

The local bus market in Japan was deregulated in 2002. This study examines the impact of this deregulation on the market structure and the operators' cost efficiency over the last ten years. First, we perform a qualitative before-and-after-deregulation analysis of Japan's bus market, finding that there has been little change in the structure of the Japanese bus market so far. Second, we investigate the effectiveness of the deregulation and internal organisational factors by using a dataset of publicly owned (municipal) bus companies. We estimate the total cost frontier functions in order to examine their effects, showing that it is the internal organisational factors (i.e. governance structure) that affect the operator's efficiency, not deregulation. In fact, the coefficient of subsidies to companies is positive, with statistical significance, thereby suggesting that cost efficiency decreases as the subsidy ratio increases. The coefficient of the contracting-out (MCGL) dummy also obtains statistically significant results; thus, we provide an account of how contracting out clearly improves operators' cost efficiency. The deregulation variable did not show significant results.     

Impact of Transmilenio on density,land use,and land value in Bogotá

While urban sprawl has been the general growth pattern in most developing cities worldwide, the city of Bogotá has undergone a process of densification in specific areas in the past decade. Using a differences-in-differences methodology, we have shown that the bus rapid transit (BRT) network, Transmilenio, built in this period is one of the variables that account for this higher density. Areas served by Transmilenio, especially those in the periphery that have been provided with feeder bus routes, have a higher growth than zones without access to this system. Using a similar methodology for assessing the growth of newly built areas, we have not found a clear relation between the BRT and recent evolution of residential, commercial, or work areas. However, recent scientific literature confirms an impact of the BRT on land value.     

Regulation,trust and contractual incentives around transport contracts – Is there anything bus operators can learn from public air service contracts?

This paper compares recent experiences in contract negotiation and subsequent commitment in public air services with the bus industry. The heart of the paper is a survey of European and Australian regional airlines, which we mirror with revealed experiences of bus operators. We aim to identify a number of elements in the contracting regimes that have exposed ambiguity and significant gaps in what the principal (e.g., transport department) expected, and what the agent (airline or bus operator) believed they were obliged to deliver. Ultimately airline and bus services are similar in that public authorities procure transport services that are desirable for the society but would be unprofitable without government involvement. In both sectors (theoretically fairly similar) public transport contracts are used, and those usually include obligations and performance measurements. In terms of similarities, one of the surveyed contract details that had a perceived high clarity in both industries was “payment procedures” and amongst those with rather poor clarity was also in both industries “incentives to improve performance and grow patronage”. We also show differences between regional air services and bus operations with regard to performance measurement and pre-specified obligations. Because of the strong safety culture around air services we find that regulation and trusting partnerships are even more important to aviation than to the bus sector. Because of the high level of trust but also because of simpler and more complete contracts in aviation, there is much less (re-)negotiation going on compared to the bus operations.     

Operator changes through competitive tendering: Empirical evidence from German local bus transport

In this paper, we empirically investigate operator changes and the structural conditions in competitive tendering of bus services in Germany. We show that the focus has been on regional services, which has led to a loss in market share for the incumbent DB Stadtverkehr companies and gains for private companies, whereas municipal services have rarely been tendered out. The high average number of bidders (5.1) and the high probability of an operator change (58.2%) are positively influenced by tendering in larger volumes and longer contractual lengths. Tenders in early years have been more likely subject to an operator change. By contrast, complexity drivers such as the number of lines and mixed urban and regional transports exhibit a negative influence on competition.     

Competition in Brazilian bus and coach services - The results of recent competitive tendering processes

This paper analyses the terms and the results of a sample of some recent Brazilian bidding processes for the concession of public passenger transport services: namely, urban and metropolitan bus or regional coach services. The analysis is based on selected issues relating to competitiveness and upon the legal framework that applies in this sector. It was concluded that, given the lack of bidding processes for concessions in the bus and coach sector in Brazil, the fact that some bidding processes have been carried out should be considered a sign of progress. However, these auctions have not necessarily prioritised competitiveness, since many barriers to entry into the systems were imposed by the bidding terms. Future competitive tendering processes should seek to abide by stricter principles of competitiveness, if they wish to avoid the entire effort expended on conducting such processes serving only to mask nothing more than formal obedience to the law and to discredit the bidding process in the eyes of Brazilian citizens.     

Lessons in ownership, regulation and management from 100 years of bus transport in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka observes 100 years of bus passenger transport in 2007. During this period the country has seen different forms of service providers ranging from private sector monopolies to state sector monopolies. It also has seen several changes in state policy ranging from welfare orientated service provision to entire market determined without any regulation. The existing regulated mixed competition is also characterized by poorly equipped regulators. In conclusion, the paper traces the different stages of failure that have led to the poor quality of bus transport services existing at present.     

基于驿站节点的船舶机舱监测系统设计

针对船舶机舱监测系统信号传输过程中干扰源较多、干扰强度较大等特点,提出一种基于CAN冗余总线的船舶监测报警系统.在此基础上,根据船舶机舱可多路径敷设电缆的特点,提出了异地敷设总线的方法,提升了信号传输的可靠性;在总线接口处,引入驿站节点的思想,将有效信号发送至下一个环节并消除无效干扰,提升了信号传输的速度和效率.最后,通过数学方法证明了其有效性.     

船舶自动化机舱CAN总线控制系统

文中主要阐述船舶自动化机舱CAN总线控制系统,介绍了船舶自动化机舱CAN总线优点,分析了船舶自动化机舱系统核心功能和自动化机舱系统CAN总线的总体设计方案,指出CAN总线控制系统具有广阔的应用前景.     

基于消息机制的MicroCAN协议开发与应用

设计了针对小型系统的MicroCAN总线协议．该协议规范了消息机制,实现数据传输单帧与多帧接口的统一,保障数据传输的可靠性;规范了大数据量传输机制,利用打包与解包技术,保障数据传输的正确性与高效性．详细阐述了协议的实现方法．该协议已成功应用于调距桨连续数据记录仪中,测试结果表明该协议具有高可靠性和高效性的特点．     

Transantiago: A tale of two cities

The Chilean government decided to modernize Santiago's entire public transport system, integrating the underground and the private bus networks based on a structure of trunk and feeder services, and a fare-payment by touchless smart card. The new, integrated transit system, known as Transantiago, very soon ran into serious problems that alienated much of its user base and significantly lowered the government's approval ratings. This paper recounts how Transantiago was planned and designed and then discusses its evolution after implementation. It concludes with suggestions for the Transantiago authorities and lessons to be learned from this traumatic process.     

Methodology for calculating passenger capacity in bus rapid transit systems: Application to the TransMilenio system in Bogotá, Colombia

Transit textbooks and engineering manuals indicate that the capacity of Bus Rapid Transit –BRT – systems does not exceed 20,000 passengers per hour per direction. The implementation of the TransMilenio BRT System, in Bogotá, Colombia, showed that the systematic combination of multiple platforms at stations, overtaking lanes, level boarding, prepayment, large buses with multiple doors, express and local services, and traffic engineering measures at intersections, allow for very large passenger throughput. Measurements indicate actual throughput of 43,000 passengers per hour per direction with average bus occupancy of 150 passengers per articulated bus, and a commercial speed of 22–24 km/h. According to special formulas developed for the analysis of high capacity BRT corridors, the critical section of TransMilenio has a practical capacity of 48,000 passengers per hour per direction with its existing infrastructure and 150 passengers per bus – 35,000 passengers per hour per direction with 110 passengers per bus. Changes in existing infrastructure, such as additional platforms, higher capacity vehicles, non-grade facilities at critical intersections, among other improvements, may increase the capacity, speed, reliability and quality of service of the system.     

基于PCI总线的视频采集卡驱动程序的设计与实现

本文介绍了基于PCI总线的视频采集卡驱动程序的设计和实现。视频采集卡基于PCI总线的设计更好地满足了高速大容量的数据传输需求;针对视频设备的内核流驱动的设计更方便了上层应用软件的开发。该视频采集卡驱动已经成功应用于视频监控系统中,有效地提高了视频监控系统的功效。     

Evaluating the long term impacts of transport policy: An initial assessment of bus deregulation

Local buses in Britain, outside London, were ‘deregulated’ as a result of the 1985 Transport Act, with most of the organisational changes implemented in 1986 but many of the ownership changes occurring over a longer period. By contrast, in London, the 1984 London Regional Transport Act introduced a system of comprehensive tendering – but it took 10 years for the organisational and ownership changes to be fully implemented. This paper examines the long term impacts of these changes. A key issue when examining long term changes is that of the counterfactual – what would have happened if the changes had not occurred? An econometric model of the demand for local bus services in Britain is outlined and used in conjunction with extrapolative methods for key variables such as fares and bus kms to determine demand-side counterfactuals. Some analyses of subsidy and of costs will also be outlined. This will then permit the examination of welfare change by estimating changes in consumer and producer surpluses, updating earlier studies. It is found that outside London, bus demand declined strongly, at least up to the year 2000 and some of this reduction can be ascribed to deregulation. By contrast in London, demand has generally been increasing. However, in both areas operating costs also declined strongly, again up to 2000, but since then there have been strong increases in costs and subsidy. Our initial finding is that there are net welfare increases both outside and inside London, but with welfare increases per capita being five times greater in London than elsewhere. However, sensitivity analysis shows that our results are sensitive to the specification of the modelling system and assumptions made concerning the counterfactual, particularly for the results for London.     

CAN总线在舰载无线通信控制管理系统中的应用

CAN是一种能有效支持分布式控制和实时控制的串行通信网络。介绍了CAN总线的特点，并具体阐述了使用CAN总线实现舰载无线通信控制管理系统的分布式控制，通过任意一个用户终端设备可以使用任意一个信道设备；给出了CAN总线智能节点硬件电路的设计；设计中应该注意的问题；以及各智能节点间底层通信关键模块的软件流程。实验结果表明，用CAN总线实现系统的分布式控制，具有较好的实时性；系统的顽存能力得到了显著提高，系统规模更易于扩充，具有低成本性和高可靠性的优点，并且效果较为理想。CAN总线是分布式实时控制系统的理想总线，具有广阔的发展前景。     

Operating differential subsidies: problems and alternatives for the United States

In this paper a proposal for a Competitive Rate of Return (CRR) based operating-subsidy system is made as an alternative to the existing US foreign-cost parity ODS system. Such an alternative, if adopted, could be successful in meaningfully relating US government maritime subsidy programmes to the legitimate financial needs of the industry. From the operator's viewpoint, the risk of drastic revenue fluctuations is removed, yet adequate opportunities are provided for firms with above average performance to be rewarded for their efficiency in higher than average profits. similarly, poorly run firms have an opportunity to lose money, in spite of government subsidies.

From the government's viewpoint, the CRR programme guarantees the provision of essential shipping services at the lowest possible cost. Because of substantial incentives to the operator on both the revenue and cost side of his profit equation, it is more likely that long-run government operating subsidies can be reduced under CRR than under the present system.

Although the CRR system has been described for use in determining subsidies for both bulk and general cargo carriers, it has been recommended that this system be considered first for implementation in the case of bulk vessels, because of the newness of the bulk subsidy programme. In addition, the 1970 Act gives MarAd the flexibility to initiate such a programme for bulk vessels without the necessity of new legislation.     

RS485串行总线可靠性探讨

RS485总线在舰船通信系统中,由于受到强电磁场干扰、收发复用线路、以及高温、高湿恶劣海洋环境的影响,其通讯可靠性较差。从阻抗匹配、失效保护、系统冗余等方面分析了影响RS485总线技术可靠性的因素,提出了相应的解决方法,并成功应用于舰船监控网络中,保证了监控装置的可靠运行。