Sustainability and national policy in UK port development

Given the private sector character of the UK port system it might well be thought that, so far as port development is concerned, the market ruled. There are of course permissions to be obtained, including planning consent under the Town and Country Planning Acts; but this process has not so far been considered to interfere with market function. Ports are already well used to the process of obtaining approval, to negotiations with objectors and environmental interests, and to mitigating the effects of development when defining projects and seeking approval.

However, as ports policy is being brought into line with transport policy generally, and in particular with Government policy for sustainable development, ports are being faced with a more challenging regulatory framework. The search for sustainable transport is leading Government towards a broader based approach to the approval of development applications in which market need and commercial viability are simply two of a number of considerations which ports must take into account in designing projects which also meet environmental concerns.

There has been a long standing requirement for developers of major projects to carry out Environmental Impact Assessments. In addition Government policy is set out in a number of publications, applying sustainability and the associated “New Approach to Transport Assessment” (NATA) to the ports sector. In a separate and broader initiative it has also considered a radical reform of the planning system and the establishment of national priorities for infrastructure combined with a simplification of the Public Inquiry process. In the event it has been decided not to establish national priorities in the ports sector, although the aim of simplification of the Inquiry process remains.

The aim of this paper is to explore the emerging theoretical and practical issues arising within the development approval process. These are of most concern in the development of major projects for cargoes which have broad hinterlands, and where there are competing locations for new facilities. The most important example of this is in the deep sea container sector where there is a demand for new capacity and a choice of widely spaced locations in the south east of the UK. Some comment will be made on this sector and on the issues arising at the Public Inquiries for the proposed container port developments at Dibden Bay (Southampton) and the London Gateway at Shellhaven on the north bank of the Thames.     

Sustainability and national policy in UK port development

Given the private sector character of the UK port system it might well be thought that, so far as port development is concerned, the market ruled. There are of course permissions to be obtained, including planning consent under the Town and Country Planning Acts; but this process has not so far been considered to interfere with market function. Ports are already well used to the process of obtaining approval, to negotiations with objectors and environmental interests, and to mitigating the effects of development when defining projects and seeking approval.

However, as ports policy is being brought into line with transport policy generally, and in particular with Government policy for sustainable development, ports are being faced with a more challenging regulatory framework. The search for sustainable transport is leading Government towards a broader based approach to the approval of development applications in which market need and commercial viability are simply two of a number of considerations which ports must take into account in designing projects which also meet environmental concerns.

There has been a long standing requirement for developers of major projects to carry out Environmental Impact Assessments. In addition Government policy is set out in a number of publications, applying sustainability and the associated “New Approach to Transport Assessment” (NATA) to the ports sector. In a separate and broader initiative it has also considered a radical reform of the planning system and the establishment of national priorities for infrastructure combined with a simplification of the Public Inquiry process. In the event it has been decided not to establish national priorities in the ports sector, although the aim of simplification of the Inquiry process remains.

The aim of this paper is to explore the emerging theoretical and practical issues arising within the development approval process. These are of most concern in the development of major projects for cargoes which have broad hinterlands, and where there are competing locations for new facilities. The most important example of this is in the deep sea container sector where there is a demand for new capacity and a choice of widely spaced locations in the south east of the UK. Some comment will be made on this sector and on the issues arising at the Public Inquiries for the proposed container port developments at Dibden Bay (Southampton) and the London Gateway at Shellhaven on the north bank of the Thames.     

U.S. Fishery Management Councils as Ecosystem-Based Management Policy Takers and Policymakers

The United States has a new national ocean policy that adopts ecosystem-based management (EBM) as its first principle for managing U.S. ocean spaces and marine resources. However, U.S. laws that govern the uses of ocean spaces present a challenging tangle of authorities and mandates that do not easily facilitate ecosystem-based policies. For over 30 years, U.S. marine fisheries management has been guided by eight Regional Fishery Management Councils. Working under the many laws that guide setting stewardship priorities for ocean ecosystems, councils provide the Federal Government with advice on fisheries harvest levels, fish habitat protections, and fishing community needs. Implementing EBM for any ocean ecosystem requires a careful examination of the laws and policy processes that affect human interaction with that ecosystem. This article explores the U.S. perspective on federal ecosystem-based fisheries management, its part in U.S. national ocean policy, and how fishery management councils might position themselves as both EBM policymakers and policy takers for ocean resource management.     

Policy and culture: The bristol bay case

Abstract

This paper deals with the difficulties of implementing legislation in non‐Western social and cultural contexts. The author presents an abbreviated case study of Alaska's effort to increase the economic returns of resident fishermen by restricting entry into state‐controlled fisheries. This paper examines how the implicit objectives of Alaska's Limited Entry Act of 1973 were effectively obstructed by the regulatory policy and by the implementation process. The paper focuses on the impact of this policy on Native Americans of Bristol Bay, Alaska, the site of the largest commercial fishery in Alaska and the world's largest salmon runs. Presented are some of the reasons several hundred natives were ultimately excluded from participating in the local commercial fishery.     

The Value of a Spillover Fishery for Spiny Lobsters Around a Marine Reserve in Northern New Zealand

The contribution that Leigh Marine Reserve in northern New Zealand makes to the local spiny lobster fishery was examined by comparing the catch characteristics of Jasus edwardsii around the reserve boundary with those from Coastal Leigh, 0.3-2 km from the reserve, and Little Barrier Island, 22-30 km from the reserve. Seasonal trends were apparent in the reserve catch characteristics, consistent with lobster movements into and out of offshore fishing areas adjacent to the boundary. No significant difference was detected in catch per unit effort (kg.trap haul -1 ) among locations. However, the catch around the marine reserve consisted of fewer but larger lobsters than at Little Barrier Island, while the size and number of lobsters caught per trap haul at Coastal Leigh was intermediate between the other two locations. Catch rates around the reserve were more variable than at the other sites, but on average, the amount of money made per trap haul was similar to Little Barrier Island and Coastal Leigh.     

Sociocultural Effects of a Market-Based Fishery Management Program in the Florida Keys

Spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) represents one of the most lucrative fisheries in the State of Florida, and a majority of the catch is landed in the Florida Keys. Over the past three decades, the industry grew significantly, and by the end of the 1980s, state fishery managers agreed that the fishery was overextended. In 1991, the Florida Legislature passed the Spiny Lobster Trap Certificate Program (LTC), created to stabilize the industry by reducing the total number of traps while allowing fishers to transfer trap certificates in a market-based system akin to individual transferable quotas. Data from a survey study suggest that a majority of the respondents are dissatisfied with the LTC, which they view as transitory and unsustainable. The fishers' negative views are motivated by sociocultural changes in the fishing community. Managers need to consider modifications to the LTC and other such marketbased programs to minimize sociocultural impacts and retain small-scale fisher participation in such fisheries.     

Russia's waterborne trade and transport: issues in market transformation

During the Soviet era most of the Union's international non-oil trade was transported over water. Following the former Soviet Union's break-up, the share of water transport in accomodating Russia's trade has become modest, as the railways carry most goods that are traded domestically or with the new republics of the Commonwealth of Independence States, which are now treated as foreign countries. Adjusting the Russian Federation's water transport industry and related infrastructure to the changed geo-political and regional economic conditions proves difficult. While the country inherited a fair share of the former Soviet merchant fleet, it is deprived of port assets which were originally built to serve all-Union trades but are now located in other republics of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Major reforms are required to streamline the provision of port services and the ports' commercial performance. The Russian Government took several steps in 1992 which effectively put the national water transport carriers on a commercial footing. The effect has been that many carriers chose to leave the national transport scence and engage in trades which do not include Russia. The Government is now confronted with the need to reduce dependence on foreign-owned vessels and to modernize the national merchant fleet. Difficult policy decisions have to reverse these trends so that national maritime industry asstes become more available to meet the country's needs.     

建设服务型政府部门 加快船员队伍发展

文中阐述海事船员管理部门在建设服务型政府中应该“管什么”和“如何管”，并以对人民交通事业高度负责的精神，推出具体措施积极稳妥地强化服务职能，完善服务政策，创新服务机制，提高公共服务能力，努力建设服务型政府部门，推动船员事业科学发展。     

Maritime policy in Scotland

This paper begins by defining the meaning of the term ‘maritime policy’. Since devolution in the UK, the opening of the new Scottish parliament in 1998 and the creation of the Scottish Executive, little effort has been made to establish a distinct maritime policy for Scotland. As was evident prior to devolution, the primary emphasis from any maritime policy perspective has continued to be a focus on lifeline island ferry services. This ignores significant developments in several other key maritime transport sectors, and this paper provides examples of areas that require some form of policy response, including intra-European short sea shipping, UK coastal shipping, urban/river transport and global container shipping. Long-standing institutional bias against maritime transport coupled with subsidy devoted almost entirely to land transport systems has resulted in a quite distorted marketplace. This suggests that a maritime policy is now imperative if maritime transport is to play a more significant role in the overall transport system. Further discussion centres on the need to consider, from a Scottish policy perspective, the role of various state-sponsored maritime service providers and how these bodies might fit better within evolving policy. The conclusion is that formulation of a maritime policy by the Scottish Executive is overdue and that a degree of restructuring of transport responsibilities within the Executive, combined with adequate resource allocation towards the maritime industry, will be necessary in order that market distortions can be overcome, so enabling Scotland to fully exploit the competitive and environmental advantages that maritime transport can provide.     

Maritime policy in Scotland

This paper begins by defining the meaning of the term 'maritime policy'. Since devolution in the UK, the opening of the new Scottish parliament in 1998 and the creation of the Scottish Executive, little effort has been made to establish a distinct maritime policy for Scotland. As was evident prior to devolution, the primary emphasis from any maritime policy perspective has continued to be a focus on lifeline island ferry services. This ignores significant developments in several other key maritime transport sectors, and this paper provides examples of areas that require some form of policy response, including intra-European short sea shipping, UK coastal shipping, urban/river transport and global container shipping. Long-standing institutional bias against maritime transport coupled with subsidy devoted almost entirely to land transport systems has resulted in a quite distorted marketplace. This suggests that a maritime policy is now imperative if maritime transport is to play a more significant role in the overall transport system. Further discussion centres on the need to consider, from a Scottish policy perspective, the role of various state-sponsored maritime service providers and how these bodies might fit better within evolving policy. The conclusion is that formulation of a maritime policy by the Scottish Executive is overdue and that a degree of restructuring of transport responsibilities within the Executive, combined with adequate resource allocation towards the maritime industry, will be necessary in order that market distortions can be overcome, so enabling Scotland to fully exploit the competitive and environmental advantages that maritime transport can provide.     

我国海洋渔业装备亟待升级

海洋渔业装备作为渔业生产的重要载体．是渔业和船舶科技发展水平的集中体现。我国是世界第一渔业大国也是第一渔船大国,但渔业装备整体水平落后。这不仅严重影响我国海洋渔业的发展,也使我国的海洋权益受到威胁。对此,业内专家强烈呼吁．大力发展远洋渔业是解决我国资源日益短缺、保障我国可持续发展的重要战略措施。     

Hierarchical logic in shipping policy and decision-making

Shipping policy is made and implemented under conditions of multiple objectives and constraints. It is often also subject to diverse interests and decision-makers, each with his own agenda. Policy alternatives usually have different financial, economic, market, environmental, and other implications, and, as a result, affect objectives and constraints differently. In turn, their desirability from the point of view of the various decision-makers will be influenced by complex sets of priorities. Shipping policy and decision-making involves the trade-off among a myriad of often conflicting objectives in the choice between alternative strategies. A hierarchical network approach to the determination of the most effective choice or strategy is proposed to represent the effect of policy alternatives on desired and undesired outcomes and the impact of these outcomes on the objectives and, as a result, the various interest groups supporting different policy objectives. The model suggested is based on the analytic hierarchy or expert choice process and permits consideration of both qualitative as well as quantitative performance measures and their impact on policy or decision objectives.     

Maritime economics in a Post-Expansion Panama Canal Era

Government recently introduced the Transport Law Reform Bill, which if passed by Parliament, will allow foreign vessels to uplift and discharge cargoes and passengers along the coast of New Zealand. Coastal shipping is part of the domestic transport industry, which has benefitted from deregulation and considerable restructuring over the last decade. This paper provides a brief review of the coastal shipping industry in New Zealand and an overview of international cabotage laws. An alternative open coast shipping policy proposed by the New Zealand Shipping Federation, which is based on ‘level playing fields’ principles, is presented. The scope of cost benefit analysis is outlined and the potential costs and the potential costs and benefits of the Government's open coast shipping policy are summarized. Despite the potential costs to New Zealand of an open coast policy appearing to be considerably greater than the potential benefits. Government officials have not undertaken an empirical cost benefit analysis. The paperr concludes that hte clauses of the Transport Law Reform Bill relating to an open coast policy should be withdrawn and a full empirical cost benefit analysis should be undertaken to determine the best coastal shipping policy for New Zealand.     

Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management in the Chesapeake: Developing Functional Indicators

A step-wise approach to implementing ecosystem-based fishery management (EBFM) offers both a tractable policy opportunity and feasible set of scientific responsibilities in ongoing efforts to incorporate ecosystem dynamics into fisheries management. This case study of oysters in the Chesapeake takes a regional approach and utilizes a fishery species that is a popular menu item, an important habitat for other fish species, and a cultural touchstone in the area. From grounding in ecosystem service policy goals and a survey of stakeholders from across industry, management, science, and community groups, we developed eight indicators that are meant to serve as a first-order check for EBFM. We evaluated these indicators based on data availability, spatial coverage of the whole region, and relevance to ecosystem service goals. Spatial integration of indicators addressing chemical, biological, social, and economic factors, allows identification of localities within the region that require more attention, either by scientists or policymakers, in order to meet EBFM goals.     

Social Networks of Alaska Fishing Communities

Fishing community social networks function as channels for transfer of fishery knowledge, resources, and business transactions that help mitigate risks and shocks associated with altered access to fishery resources. Research on such networks in Alaska is limited despite their cultural importance and community reliance on fisheries. We contribute to scholarship of fishery social networks by assessing Alaska fishing community perspectives of challenges related to fisheries policy and management, and the existing social networks that aid in overcoming these challenges. Our findings show that the greatest challenges fishing communities face pertaining to fishery management are high costs of participating in catch share programs, restricted subsistence fishing activity due to decline in salmon, and complex regulations. Social networks exist for coping with these challenges; fishery information, and resources such as food, fuel and medicines are shared between communities. However, networks for accessing fishery support services are centralized in fewer larger communities and hubs such as Anchorage. Smaller and remote communities are the most compromised in this regard given the distance they must travel to access fishery support services. Leveraging social networks for sharing resources and improving fishery support services in smaller communities will increase their adaptive capacity and ability to maintain participation in Alaska fisheries.     

The effects of the Chinese fiscal system in shipping: a comparison with the UK regime

Assessing the effects of fiscal systems on investment in shipping by using the discounted cash flow technique has recieved much attention over a number of years. This paper examines the recent change in the business environment of Chinese shipping companies and argues for the relevance of using the same technique in the Chinese context. The technique which has been developed over the years is outlined and the current Chinese and UK fiscal systems applied to shipping are described. Based on the comparison and analysis of the effects of the two systems, some policy implications are made.     

The effects of the Chinese fiscal system in shipping: a comparison with the UK regime

Assessing the effects of fiscal systems on investment in shipping by using the discounted cash flow technique has recieved much attention over a number of years. This paper examines the recent change in the business environment of Chinese shipping companies and argues for the relevance of using the same technique in the Chinese context. The technique which has been developed over the years is outlined and the current Chinese and UK fiscal systems applied to shipping are described. Based on the comparison and analysis of the effects of the two systems, some policy implications are made.     

Ground-truthing social vulnerability indices of Alaska fishing communities

Abstract

Community vulnerability is increasingly evaluated through quantitative social indices, typically developed using secondary data sources rather than primary data collection. It is necessary to understand the validity of these indices if they will be used to inform policy and decision making. This paper presents a ground-truthing effort to validate quantitative indices that characterize the well-being of Alaska fishing communities. We utilized ethnographic data collected from 13 representative communities and a capital assets framework to ground-truth the indices, in which qualitative ranks of vulnerability were compared against quantitative indices. The majority (73.8%) of ranks were in complete or moderate agreement and the results indicate that most of the indices are representative of community vulnerability; yet some variables utilized to create the indices could be modified to better reflect realities in Alaska. Indices of commercial fishery engagement and reliance appeared to be more reliable than socio-economic indicators, particularly for smaller fishing communities. We also confirmed that the indices do not capture political, or ecological factors that affect levels of community vulnerability. We conclude that quantitative indices of community vulnerability are useful rapid assessment tools; however, they should be validated, and complemented with ethnographic data prior to their implementation as policy making and management tools.     

对我国水路基础设施投融资政策的分析与调整

随着社会经济的快速发展，水路交通基础设施相对落后的状况与水路交通运输大发展需求之间的矛盾仍然存在。根据实际发展情况变化，分析研究现行水路交通基础设施投融资政策，明确政策凋整的依据和条件，并对国家相关政策提出调整建议和具体的实施措施，对于充分发挥水路交通在国民经济发展中的作用很有必要。通过凋研提出了增加国家财政投资、鼓励多渠道投资、创新融资方式和发挥地方政府投资的积极性等政策建议。     

Sustainability Challenges in the Geoduck Clam Fishery of British Columbia: Policy Perspectives

The geoduck clam fishery, worth approximately CDN $40 million ¹ US $ equivalence: 35 million (Bank of Canada exchange rate on February 1, 2006). in annual landed value, is British Columbia's most valuable invertebrate fishery. This fishery has been co-managed by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) and the Underwater Harvesters Association (UHA) since 1989. Earlier input control measures such as effort regulation, seasonal closures, and licenses failed to work effectively for more than ten years, resulting in excess fishing capacity, over harvesting, poor economic returns, and unsafe fishing practices. Output control measures such as the individual vessel quota system (IVQ) have, to some extent, proven successful in improving revenues, controlling excess fishing capacity, gaining compliance with regulations, and involving fishers in the joint decision-making processes. However, there are public concerns about a common property resource at risk of being dominated by a few UHA license holders. Additionally, there are concerns about the job losses resulting from IVQ implementation, as well as distribution and equity issues. This article traces and examines the policy context for fisheries management in the British Columbia (BC) geoduck fishery, discusses the major concerns surrounding the exploitation of long lived Methuselah's clams and concludes with areas for further research in sustaining this lucrative fishery.