Sustainability and national policy in UK port development

Given the private sector character of the UK port system it might well be thought that, so far as port development is concerned, the market ruled. There are of course permissions to be obtained, including planning consent under the Town and Country Planning Acts; but this process has not so far been considered to interfere with market function. Ports are already well used to the process of obtaining approval, to negotiations with objectors and environmental interests, and to mitigating the effects of development when defining projects and seeking approval.

However, as ports policy is being brought into line with transport policy generally, and in particular with Government policy for sustainable development, ports are being faced with a more challenging regulatory framework. The search for sustainable transport is leading Government towards a broader based approach to the approval of development applications in which market need and commercial viability are simply two of a number of considerations which ports must take into account in designing projects which also meet environmental concerns.

There has been a long standing requirement for developers of major projects to carry out Environmental Impact Assessments. In addition Government policy is set out in a number of publications, applying sustainability and the associated “New Approach to Transport Assessment” (NATA) to the ports sector. In a separate and broader initiative it has also considered a radical reform of the planning system and the establishment of national priorities for infrastructure combined with a simplification of the Public Inquiry process. In the event it has been decided not to establish national priorities in the ports sector, although the aim of simplification of the Inquiry process remains.

The aim of this paper is to explore the emerging theoretical and practical issues arising within the development approval process. These are of most concern in the development of major projects for cargoes which have broad hinterlands, and where there are competing locations for new facilities. The most important example of this is in the deep sea container sector where there is a demand for new capacity and a choice of widely spaced locations in the south east of the UK. Some comment will be made on this sector and on the issues arising at the Public Inquiries for the proposed container port developments at Dibden Bay (Southampton) and the London Gateway at Shellhaven on the north bank of the Thames.     

Port competition in Latin America and the Caribbean: the role of concessions and competition policy

Appropriate port regulation and competitive forces tend to be related to higher levels of operational and economic performance of ports. From a policy-making perspective, pursuing efficiency and securing competition in ports to reach a level playing field is a two-step process requiring (1) ex-ante regulations to set the rules that maximize the competition for the market, especially when the policy objective is to attract private operations to ports on competitive concession processes and (2) ex-post competition policy to monitor and preserve competition in the market. This paper studies port regulation in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) from a competition perspective, analyzing both ex-ante and ex-post policies implemented in the region. The analysis reveals that the competitive environment in LAC is low, giving room for possible anticompetitive practices in the LAC port sector. Since the end of the 1990s, approximately 80% of container terminals in the region were granted to only five companies. Chile and Mexico have been found to be the best practices in the region, with better conditions assuring robust competition in the market. The main policy implication from this analysis is the need for a stronger involvement of antitrust agencies throughout the port concession processes.     

Container port systems in China and the USA: a comparative study

This study compares the evolution of container port systems in China and the USA in terms of port throughput, number of container ports and the concentration level in the container port system, based on the time-series data on these three features over the period 1979–2009 for China and 1970–2009 for the USA. The results show that the densities of container ports in the two countries are similar, and their evolutionary processes are alike, which has led to a comparable market structure in the port industries of the two countries. In addition, the disparities between container ports closely represent the unevenness in the regional economic development. We further compare the port management regimes of the two countries in terms of the administrative processes for port development and expansion, the ownership structure and the providers of port functions, which offer some explanation on the dynamics of port evolution in the two countries. In conclusion, it can be seen that the evolution of the container port system and the management regime in the USA can be a de facto reference for the future development of the Chinese container port system.     

Italian ports: towards a new governance?

The adoption in 1994 of the law n. 84 introducing the landlord port model marked the starting point of a prime period for the Italian port industry. It contributed to the national port industry renaissance: Italian ports became again the leaders in the Mediterranean basin, both as gateway ports and as transhipment ports. Looking back to its 15 years of enforcement, critical aspects and weaknesses have been observed. The incentive to reflect on the governance structure of ports and on the changes affecting the whole logistics transport chain is driven by the relative and absolute loss of position of Italian ports with respect to their competitors of the North as well as of the South European range (and the ports of Northern Africa which are expected to compete fiercely in the coming future). Considering only the container traffic, from 2003 to 2008 the market share of Italian ports decreased from 20.7% to 15.7% in favor of its main European competitors. The loss of attractiveness of Italian harbors is a clear symptom of the several difficulties national ports face in dealing with the rapid changes affecting the port industry. This paper discusses the bill presented by the Italian Government concerning the ports governance reform.     

Strategies of developing part administration in Ireland

This paper reivews a programme recently undertaken by the Irish Government aimed at reforming the administration of Irish ports. Arising from that programme, and as a result of legislative changes, eight key ports were vested as commerical harbour companies (prior to this they were administered by large Boards and were very restricted in their ability to perform commercially). The context for the paper is the global trend towards port reformation, and the paper draws particuarly on the effects of the privatization of UK ports. The paper starts with a review of the role of parts, both generally and within the context of Ireland's growing, geographically peripheral, economy. Observations of the UK ports privatization process are next considered. The history, development and recent performance of Irish ports, together with port investment strategies, are critiqued and the background to the recent programme of administrative reform undertaken by the Irish Government concerning the ports is reviewed. Various observations from a number of sources (including 12 interviews by the authors with key actors in the sector) on the reform process are discussed. It is concluded that there is no uniformity of opinion as to the suitability of the chosen model for Irish ports administration and that it is too soon to judge whether it has been a success (the eight ports were commercialized in March 1997). The paper concludes that, given the critical role of ports within the Irish economy, the situation should be periodically reviewed to ascertain the current applicability of the extant port administration model.     

The evolution of containerization in East Asia

This paper examines the development and growth of container traffic in the Asia-Pacific region. It is hypothesised that containerization is losing its national character as the geography of container transport changes port hierarchies where only a few ports have become locationally favorable. The organizatioon of the paper is straightforward. First, the development and growth of container traffic in the Asia-Pacific region is examined in order to provide understanding of changes associated with containerization. Second, the role of selected Asian-Pacific ports as key economic players is reviewed, and container development in each port is analysed so as to measure the differences explaining the position of Asian-Pacific ports in the maritime system. Third, the degree of concentration and competition that exist among the container ports of the region is analysed with a view to evaluate what rate of expansion can be expected in the foreseeable future that will shape the network of the container market in the region. The paper concludes on a possible research agenda.     

Dynamics of liner shipping service scheduling and their impact on container port competition

Container ports provide the primary interface where physical exchange between buyers and sellers of containerised shipping capacity can be consolidated and realised. Consequently, ports that are able to complement and add value to the objectives of shipping lines and shippers will become focal points for containerised cargo flows. To evaluate container port competition, the authors propose a practical and direct approach based on revealed preferences of shipping lines with respect to container shipping service dynamics. The container shipping networks are generated as carriers formulate their service schedules to capitalise on opportunities that are presented by evolving container trade patterns along trade routes and relative changes in the competitive profile of the ports of call. Empirical results showed that this approach offers a deeper understanding on the workings and evolution of competitive dynamics between ports, which may not be obvious from observations of port performance at the aggregated level. Benefits of the approach also include raising awareness that policy makers should be aware of the need to understand the nature, extensity and intensity of competitive relationships between ports as they craft and implement policies to correct for the actual or perceived market failures in the industry.     

The size effect of a port on the container handling efficiency level and market share in internation transshipment flow

This study examines the relationship between the size of a port, its efficiency increase and the performance growth in the transshipment market. The hypothesis tested is that the bigger size of a port would increase the market share of the port in container transshipment; only when the size effect guarantees better ‘relative’ container handling efficiency in competing port system where the port belongs. To verify the hypothesis, this study carries out two analyses. First, the overall efficiency change of major Asian ports is examined through stochastic frontier analysis (SFA)—this produces the relative efficiency indices of the ports. Second, the relationship between efficiency indices and container transshipment volumes is studied through panel data analysis. From these analyses, it is observed that larger Asian ports show better cargo handling efficiency in relative terms; they also record bigger market share in container transshipment, while the size effect of the ports starts to play a factor when the annual container throughput reaches 5 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU).     

Institutional reform in ports of developing countries: the case of Lebanon−part I: the plan

Upon the expiry of the concession contract signed between Lebanon and a private company for the Port of Beirut operation (in December 1990), the Government appointed a temporary commission to operate the port under the rules of the expiring concession. The legality of this measure has since always been questioned, while the temporary commission underwent three major personnel changes which clearly prevented any long-term thinking or planning. In 1998, the temporary commission entered into a 20-year joint venture for the establishment of a container terminal. Meanwhile, Lebanon's two main ports were facing major regional competition, while competing against each other to some degree. Thus, the need became urgent to end the temporary status and propose reforms to the entire sector. To that end, the Ministry of Public Works and Transport was commissed by the Government to propose a permanent institutional framework for the port of Beirut while assessing the need for a national maritime sector regulator. This paper presents the recommendations for the institutional reform of the Lebanese maritime transport sector.     

基于GRNN神经网络的长江干线港口集装箱吞吐量预测

在长江集装箱货源市场调查分析的基础上,根据长江干线集装箱发展形势,结合长江干线港口发展情况及历年数据调查,考虑影响港口吞吐量预测的复杂因素,运用GRNN神经网络的优点,构建预测模型。预测结果证明,该模型在应用中是有效的,且当样本数据短缺时,预测效果也较佳。     

Next generation mega container ports: implications of traffic composition on sea space demand

ABSTRACT

Demand for sea space brought about by increasing container-shipping traffic has important implications on how this space is managed and used. This is particularly important given the long-term nature, high-asset specificity, high- opportunity cost of investment, and significant economic impact of container port activity on a locality. The challenge is especially pressing for ports, which are facing constraints in seaside capacity where container traffic also has to co-exist with the needs of other types of ship traffic. This challenge is likely be multiplied for next generation container ports, which are expected to handle even larger traffic volumes. These ports are also likely to face competing sea space demands from other economic and social activities especially when they are concurrently major confluences of trade, logistics, and urban populations. This is the first research to investigate in detail the impact and importance of investigating sea space requirements from the perspective of cargo traffic composition and ship capacity. Results show that transshipment containers can generate much higher demand for sea space due to the higher volume of shipping capacity that accompanies such traffic. Sustainability issues and managerial and policy implications pertaining to the development of next generation container ports are provided.     

Institutional reform in ports of developing countries: the case of Lebanon—part I: the plan

Upon the expiry of the concession contract signed between Lebanon and a private company for the Port of Beirut operation (in December 1990), the Government appointed a temporary commission to operate the port under the rules of the expiring concession. The legality of this measure has since always been questioned, while the temporary commission underwent three major personnel changes which clearly prevented any long-term thinking or planning. In 1998, the temporary commission entered into a 20-year joint venture for the establishment of a container terminal. Meanwhile, Lebanon's two main ports were facing major regional competition, while competing against each other to some degree. Thus, the need became urgent to end the temporary status and propose reforms to the entire sector. To that end, the Ministry of Public Works and Transport was commissed by the Government to propose a permanent institutional framework for the port of Beirut while assessing the need for a national maritime sector regulator. This paper presents the recommendations for the institutional reform of the Lebanese maritime transport sector.     

Port e-Transformation,customer satisfaction and competitiveness

ABSTRACT

e-Transformation in container ports means port organization-wide innovative transformation encompassing internal and external value chains based on information and communication technology. There is a considerable theoretical literature on the impact of e-Transformation on business performance, but there is very little empirical study on its effectiveness in ports. The objective of this paper is to empirically investigate how e-Transformation in container port management can influence customer satisfaction and port competitiveness. The findings reveal that e-Transformation in container ports can affect customer satisfaction and port competitiveness through e-Workplace, customer relationship management and security, implying that container ports should make every effort to focus on e-transformation in these critical areas. Due to limited empirical studies in this area, the findings have provided an empirical support for the importance of e-Transformation in container terminal management and shed more light on how e-Transformation can affect customer satisfaction and port competitiveness.     

Strategies of developing part administration in Ireland

This paper reivews a programme recently undertaken by the Irish Government aimed at reforming the administration of Irish ports. Arising from that programme, and as a result of legislative changes, eight key ports were vested as commerical harbour companies (prior to this they were administered by large Boards and were very restricted in their ability to perform commercially). The context for the paper is the global trend towards port reformation, and the paper draws particuarly on the effects of the privatization of UK ports. The paper starts with a review of the role of parts, both generally and within the context of Ireland's growing, geographically peripheral, economy. Observations of the UK ports privatization process are next considered. The history, development and recent performance of Irish ports, together with port investment strategies, are critiqued and the background to the recent programme of administrative reform undertaken by the Irish Government concerning the ports is reviewed. Various observations from a number of sources (including 12 interviews by the authors with key actors in the sector) on the reform process are discussed. It is concluded that there is no uniformity of opinion as to the suitability of the chosen model for Irish ports administration and that it is too soon to judge whether it has been a success (the eight ports were commercialized in March 1997). The paper concludes that, given the critical role of ports within the Irish economy, the situation should be periodically reviewed to ascertain the current applicability of the extant port administration model.     

A game-theoretic analysis of competition among container port hubs: the case of Busan and Shanghai 1

Countries throughout the world, and especially within Asia, are investing heavily in container port infrastructure in the hopes of capturing a larger share of global shipping activity for their economies. Many existing ports are emphasizing developing the capacity to serve as a hub port, building deepwater berths with large terminals to facilitate transfer of containers from feeder ships to mother ships for intercontinental transport. We develop a game-theoretic best response framework for understanding how competitor ports will respond to development at a focus port, and whether the focus port will be able to capture or defend market share by building additional capacity. We apply this model to investment and competition currently occurring between the ports of Busan and Shanghai.     

关于提升天津港东疆保税港区集装箱业务竞争力的探讨

集装箱物流是吸引制造业资本跨国转移的重要条件,是港口城市参与国际经济大循环的有效途径,已成为促进港口城市经济发展的重要动力.世界各主要经济体都十分关注本国外贸港口在国际集装箱运输中的地位和作用,近年来国际集装箱运输市场的不断成熟为港口集装箱业务带来了前所未有的机遇和挑战.基于对国际集装箱运输市场发展趋势的分析,探讨影响港口集装箱业务竞争力的因素和天津港东疆保税港区发展集装箱业务的竞争优势,为制定提升东疆保税港区集装箱业务竞争力的策略提供建议.     

台湾海峡外海港口项目的建设要点

随着海峡西岸经济区开发的加快进行,福建沿海港湾资源的布局正重新整合、调整,煤炭、原油、集装箱等能源、物流基础设施建设正全面展开。尽管海峡西岸具有海域条件良好的兴化湾、湄州湾、泉州港、厦门港等港湾,但随着海运船舶的大型化,港口工程向外海发展也成为趋势。由于特殊的水域条件,在台湾海峡外海建设港口项目有着特殊的要求。结合最近几年在海峡外海按照工程总承包模式建设的几个大型原油、散货码头工程,提出工程建设的经验和体会。     

Shipper's councils: role and responsibility—a western view

This paper first presents arguments for having public sector port authorities. They can deal, flexibly and permanently, with property rights within their own areas. They can plan and regulate port areas comprehensively. They can provide ‘public goods’. They can deal, in various ways, with externalities. They can promote efficiency, whether their own (if they operate as a comprehensive port) or that of the private sector (if they are largely landlords). For example, if their policy is to rely on the private sector to produce efficiency through competition then they can see to it that there actually is competition and not any kind of cartel or monopoly. Examples are cited where this last function has not been performed. The exception for single-user ports is noted.

Against them are the general disadvantages of public authorities (or bureaucracies)—though examples are cited where port authorities had very small staffs. The common instances of ‘market failure’ may thus be contrasted with those of ‘government failure’. Finally, a pragmatic approach is advocated, tailored to the needs and resources of the country in question. The increasing effect of the economies of scale in port technology, and its limitation on competition, is, however, noted and to be discussed in the next paper.     

杭甬运河集装箱港口布局方案研究

运用层次分析法对杭甬运河集装箱港口布局进行规划研究,通过对港口腹地经济环境、集疏运网络、港口资源、港口服务管理水平、港口地理位置和投资等因素的权重分析,得到了以杭州港区为杭甬运河的主枢纽港,宁波海河联运港区和绍兴港区为重要港口,萧山港区、柯桥港区、上虞港区和余姚港区为一般港口的布局方案,其中主枢纽港和重要港口应以建设集装箱专用码头为主,其余应建设多用途码头。其结果对杭甬运河集装箱运输的发展具有重要的参考意义。     

巴布亚新几内亚科考瑞港集装箱吞吐量预测

为评估新建巴布亚新几内亚科考瑞港的建设规模,构建由回归分析模型、腹地集装箱运输需求重力模型、多目标港口模糊评价模型和基于Logit模型的港口选择模型4部分组成的综合预测方法。对巴布亚新几内亚科考瑞港的腹地集装箱运输需求进行预测;并对腹地省份在不同港口的集装箱运量进行测算,从而科学合理地预测科考瑞港的集装箱吞吐量,为实施项目的必要性提供支持。该预测方法使用较少的基础数据即可比较科学客观地预测新建港口的集装箱吞吐量,能够较好地解决在不发达国家或地区统计资料缺失、安全局势不稳定导致腹地调研困难等情况下的吞吐量预测问题,为海外港口的建设、咨询项目提供帮助。